Critical approaches in qualitative educational research: the relation of some theoretical and methodological approaches to these issues

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Introduction

It is important to be aware of a range of theoretical approaches within critical research. There is however no tidy relation between individual theorists and methodologies. The relationship between the two is dynamic and dialogical, as theory becomes interpreted and re-interpreted, invented and re-invented, and as methodologies evolve. The central theories are often compex and difficult. The different methodologies are diverse and have fuzzy boundaries. Moreover different theories often overlap with each other, as do different methodologies. In the following brief pages, all I shall to do is point out some of the main contours of the area, and give some signposts. This approach requires individual researchers to learn more about the details of those parts of the landscape that seem most relevant to their theoretical and political commitments. These should be read in conjunction with this one.

The areas of theory most usually considered to underpin or inform critical research are critical theory, including marxian approaches, perspectival epistemology and postmodern /post-structural approaches. Generally, it could be said that all of these are theoretical perspectives which provide a critical approach to research. However, none of the areas is clearly definable. Each of them have fuzzy boundaries. Indeed the major figures placed within them sometimes disagree with the placing and often have serious disagreements among themselves. It is sometimes hard to know where critical theory, perspectival approaches and postmodernism start and end. There are, for instance, feminists and anti-racists or post-colonialists who embrace postmodern or post-structural theory and others who reject it as being antithetical to their political project. Other TLRP pages say some more on the background to this state of affairs.

It is not even generally agreed that the areas are separable. Some commentators claim that perspectival epistemology and some postmodern/post-structural approaches ARE critical theory. Michael Apple, himself an educational theorist associated with critical theory, explains in an interview (2001, p.viii):

“I assume by the question that when we say “critical theory” we actually mean what I prefer to call “critical educational studies” which is a much broader category [than work deriving from the Frankfurt school]. It includes Marxist and neo-Marxist work and also includes work that is more related to the Frankfurt school I spoke about just a minute ago. But it also includes multiple kinds of feminist analyses, critical cultural studies, and many other critical approaches. Because of this, I’m going to define it as that broader set of approaches.”

However it is probably safer to begin by recognising the relative intellectual autonomy of perspectival approaches and postmodern or post-structuralist ones from each other and from critical theory.

Critical Theory

Critical theory is both political and epistemological in intent. It aims to move beyond the obvious in order to uncover the effects of political structures and their associated power relations. Its ultimate intent is emancipatory. To some, the term ‘critical theory’ signifies the school of thought deriving from the Frankfurt School. This was a collection of theorists in the 1930s influenced by Marx, but critical of narrow, orthodox Marxism. They drew on a wide range of theoretical resources, notably Freudian and critical cultural theory. Currently, the most influential theorist who can be identified as working within the tradition of this school is Habermas. However various other leading thinkers were influenced by this tradition, and are considered to be critical theorists. Critical theorists who are especially significant in education currently include Gadamer, Bourdieu and Freire. There have recently been a number of offshoots from the mainstream, each of which tends to have its own content and traditions of literature. They include critical literacy (de Souza and Andreotti), critical race theory (Mirza and Joseph, 2009) and critical pedagogy (Darder, Baltodano and Torres, 2008).

Although the underlying intention of critical approaches is easy to grasp, much of the theory itself is dense and difficult. Hinchey (1998) provides a useful and very approachable basic introduction to critical theory in education for classroom researchers. General overviews are provided by Popkewitz and Fendler (1999) and Apple, Au and Gandin (2009). In the UK the Institute for Education Policy Studies focuses especially on Marxist and Freirean theories (http://www.ieps.org.uk/iepsbios.php). Grenfell and James (1999) focus on Bourdieu. For an perspective which combines Bourdieu and feminism, see Adkins and Skeggs (2004).

Perspectival approaches

Perspectival approaches are opposed to epistemologies which would, as critics put it, be trying to establish ‘the view from nowhere.’ Such approaches include epistemologies and methodologies from the stance of feminism, antiracism, queer theory, and/or post-colonialism. This list is not exhaustive, nor could it be. There are also perspectives derived from specific positioning within power structures related to disability, nationality, religion, and so forth. All these categories are overlapping, fluid and shifting. For all their differences, perspectival approaches agree about the inescapability of perspective, given the way that, variously, gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality and geopolitics constrain our understandings of the world as well as our capacity to act within the world.

Youdell provides an introduction to feminist and queer educational research, especially action research. Sparkes (ed) (1992) includes articles on queer theory in education, as well as on feminist perspectives. The journal Gender and Education is a source of articles which take a feminist approach in educational research in the UK. The BERA Special Interest Groups (SIGS) on Race, Ethnicity and Education (which includes a subgroup on Critical Race Theory), Inclusion, and Social Justice are useful sources of information and networking. Lavia (2007) discusses postcolonialism in the context of inclusive education and social justice. The European Educational Research Association, also has Networks on social justice, on intercultural education, and on inclusion (http://www.eera-ecer.eu/networks/).

Postmodern and post-structuralist approaches

Postmodern and post structuralist approaches have been very influential in educational research over at least the last two decades. It is impossible to list postmodernists or post-structuralists, because these approaches logically resist definition since they have in common an incredulity towards universal and general explanations, theories or definitions. Among those who are often described as postmodern or post-structuralist are a number of theorists who have been particularly prominent. Foucault in particular has been recognised as significant, especially with regard to his analyses of the archeology of knowledge, discipline, power/knowledge, identity (in his books on the history of sexuality) and genealogy. Lyotard, has also been influential in relation to critical research, especially his book The Postmodern Condition with its analysis of the increasing identification of knowledge with information, and the simultaneous expansion of performativity. These two theorists have, not surprisingly, been particularly useful in educational theorising, because they focus on knowledge and learning. Derrida has been particularly identified with deconstruction, an approach which has strongly influenced many educational researchers using discourse analysis. Recently the Deleuze and Guattari partnership has become more influential in educational discourse. They discuss becoming, process and transformation all of which are relevant to education.

Some feminisms embrace postmodern and post structuralist approaches, while others see the two as fundamentally opposed. The argument continues within educational research. I discussed this in an early article (Griffiths, 1995). St Pierre (2000) is a more recent overview. A special issue of Comparative Education investigates postcolonial perspectives. It has an introductory article by the editors, which is freely accessible on the web. A special issue of Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood focuses on ‘applying critical theory, post-structural, postmodern, anti-colonial and related perspectives to early childhood practices, policies and research’ (http://www.wwwords.co.uk/ciec/content/pdfs/9/issue9_3.asp).

Methodological approaches

There is no one methodological approach or set of approaches which can claim to be the best fit with any or all of the theoretical approaches discussed here. Rather a range of approaches are suitable. The issue is more how they are used, and to what end, than about the details of the technique. For instance action-oriented research methods would appear to be well suited to critical research, and so they are. However, equally, they can be used instrumentally, fitting well with technical-rational, rather than critical, emancipatory aims. Similarly, discourse analysis can be used to uncover assumptions and silences in the discourses of education. However it can also be used simply to describe and measure practices: to understand rather than to transform practice. Finally, collaborative, participative methods can be used democratically and collectively, but they can also be used to consult, to give a sense of ownership and so finally to further the ends of the researcher rather than the ends of the researched.

References

Adkins, L and Skeggs, B (eds) Feminism after Bourdieu Blackwell

Apple, Michael W ( 2001) Educational and Curricular Restructuring and the Neo-liberal and Neo-conservative Agendas Currículo sem Fronteiras, 1 (1)

Apple, Michael W., Au, Wayne and Gandin, Luis Armando (eds) (2009) The Routledge International Handbook of Critical Education, Routledge

Crossley, Michael and Tikley, Leon (eds) (2004) Comparative Education, Special Issue on Postcolonial perspectives and comparative and international research in education 40

Darder, Antonia, Baltodano, Marta P. and Torres, Rodolfo D. (2008) The Critical Pedagogy Reader (Second Edition) Routledge

de Souza. Lynn Mario T.M. and Andreotti, Vanessa (eds.) Journal: Critical Literacy: Theories and Practices

Gilborn, David and Ladson-Billings (eds) (2004) The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Multicultural Education: Critical Perspectives on Race, Racism and Education, RoutledgeFalmer

Grenfell, Michael and James, David (eds) (1999) Bourdieu and Education, Routledge

Griffiths, Morwenna (1995) Making a Difference: feminism, post-modernism and the methodology of educational research, British Educational Research Journal, 21 (2)

Institute for Education Policy Studies

Hinchey, P. (1998) Finding Freedom in the Classroom: A Practical Introduction to Critical Theory. Counterpoints, Peter Lang

Lavia, J. (2007) Repositioning Postcoloniality and Pedagogies: theories, contradictions and possibilities, International Journal of Inclusive Education. Special Issue: Pedagogies as an issue of social justice and inclusion 11 (3)

Mirza, Heidi Safia and Joseph, Cynthia (2009) Race Ethnicity Education Special issue: Black Feminisms and Postcolonial Paradigms: Researching Educational Inequalities. 12 (1)

Pence, A (ed) (2008) Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood: Special Issue on Investigating Quality, 9 (3)

Popkewitz, Thomas S. and Fendler, Lynn (eds) (1999) Critical Theories in Education: Changing Terrains of Knowledge and Politics, Routledge

St. Pierre, Elizabeth Adams (2000) Poststructural feminism in education: An overview International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 13 (5)

Sparkes, Andrew (ed) (1992) Research in Physical Education and Sport: Exploring Alternative Visions, Routledge